Donnie Darko is a sci-fi thriller set in the fictional American town of Middlesex. The film follows Donnie, a possibly schizophrenic teenager who experiences visions of a figure in an ominous bunny suit. After saving him from a bizarre accident, Frank, the mysterious figure, tells Donnie that the world will end in 28 days. Throughout the film, Frank manipulates Donnie into committing a series of crimes, as tensions within the community rise. This essay will explore the ways in which psychoanalytic and postmodern theory can be applied to the film, in order to interpret its deeper themes of time travel, mental health and the notions of good and bad.
Psychoanalysis is a concept that is greatly involved in Donnie Darko. One psychoanalytic idea which can be applied to the characters within the film is Sigmund Freud’s theory of the id, superego and ego. Firstly, the character Frank represents Donnie’s id. The id is the unconscious part of the psyche which stores all of our desires, drives and traumas which the conscious mind represses (Benshoff, 2016 p.106), and only becomes apparent through unconscious acts, such as dreams, neuroses, and slips of the tongue. Frank communicates Donnie’s repressed desires to him through dreams and hallucinations, as he is able to manipulate and control Donnie’s mind. Frank also physically appears to Donnie at multiple points in the film, one of which being when he and his girlfriend, Gretchen, are at a cinema. During this scene, Frank sits across from Donnie and opens a portal in the cinema screen, religious music humming in the background. He then tells Donnie to “burn it to the ground”, referring to the house of Jim Cunningham, which Donnie burns down later in the film. Frank then disappears, leaving Donnie staring at the screen, entranced. This indicates that the encounter occurs in Donnie’s unconscious, the surrealist nature of the scene suggesting that Donnie is hallucinating. The order Frank gives is a desire that conscious Donnie has repressed in his psyche, and so now that he is in contact with his id, he has the drive to do it. Even when Frank is not on screen, Donnie’s slips of the tongue and sarcastic remarks towards his parents and teachers suggest his rebellious streak is influenced by Frank.
The second part of the psyche to discuss is the superego. The superego enforces morals upon the desires and drives of the unconscious, ‘internalising the rules of one’s given environment’ (Benshoff, 2016 p.107). Donnie’s superego could therefore be represented by his teachers, specifically his headmaster and gym teacher. These teachers are the main authority figures who punish and chastise Donnie for his rebellious acts. However, Frank could be seen to represent the superego as well as the id. Initially, the orders Frank gives to Donnie seem evil and corrupt, however, we come to realise that these actions are for the good of the community. For example, when Frank tells Donnie to burn Jim Cunningham’s house down, we suspect it is because Frank is a negative force. However, this action reveals that Cunningham is a paedophile, and so this deed is one of good rather than evil.
The final part of the psyche is the ego. This is the conscious part of the psyche; the middle ground which finds a balance between the id and superego (Doughty and Etherington-Wright, 2018 p.159). It is Donnie who represents the ego, as though he is influenced by Frank, he also learns from him and begins to act on his own accord. This becomes clear at the Halloween party when Frank runs over Gretchen in his car and appears as a normal human rather than a vision. The portrayal of Frank as a normal human instead of an ominous figure of Donnie’s imagination suggests that his id is no longer in control and that he is now taking matters into his own hands rather than following Frank’s instructions.
The film frequently delves into the unconscious and the surreal. Donnie has a therapist who uses Freud’s methods of hypnosis and the talking cure to uncover his anxieties and problems. Initially, his sessions involve talking to her consciously, but she then turns to hypnosis to talk to his unconscious. The combination of hypnosis, talking cure and medication are all unsuccessful in helping Donnie’s neurosis, although he does reveal aspects of his unconscious (Claydon, 2010 p.10). The film visually shows us Donnie’s unconscious in multiple ways, one of which by presenting his dreams. Dreams are thought to be repressed thoughts and desires (Creed, 1998 p.2) and in Donnie’s dream, we are shown a surreal image of the school corridor superimposed onto the ocean. This dream acts as a trigger for Donnie, foreshadowing his actions later in the film when he floods the school by breaking a water pipe. Surrealist techniques such as dissolve edits, slow motion, time lapses and superimposition are frequently used not only to show us his unconscious but to also make the normal everyday town Donnie lives in seem like a dream world. One scene in particular which uses an abundance of these techniques is the first school scene. This scene uses a tracking shot to show the different characters in the school, interchanging between slow and fast motion, hinting to the theme of time travel and manipulation. The film is extremely stylised, which works well with the science fiction themes and complex concepts of the unconscious mind it discusses.
Another of Freud’s theories which is relevant to Donnie Darko is his idea of the Uncanny. The Uncanny occurs when something familiar and mundane is made unusual and unsettling (Schneider, 2009 p.90). This could be seen to occur in multiple ways in the film. Firstly, the idea of the ‘Automaton’, in which it is unclear as to if something is human or not, is prevalent in the character of Frank. Throughout much of the film, Frank is wearing an ominous rabbit costume and his voice is altered to sound non-human, making us unsure as to what exactly Frank is. Later in the film, he takes his rabbit head off to reveal a human head with only one eye, though it is still unclear as to if he is human or just a figure of Donnie’s imagination. It is only at the end of the film where we see him as his human form, no longer part of Donnie’s mind. Another concept of the Uncanny is the ‘Double’, in which the fear of death is brought to mind. Both Donnie and Gretchen die after encountering Frank, and although he is not Donnie’s Doppelgänger, Frank represents his unconscious, so could therefore be seen as the same person.
Another theory which could be applied to Donnie Darko is Jacques Lacan’s Mirror Stage. In the ‘Imaginary’ stage, Lacan believes that the child identifies with the image it sees in the mirror, viewing it as a superior ‘Other’ (Stam, Burgoyne and Flitterman-Lewis, 1992 p.6129). In the film, Frank is seen as Donnie’s ‘Other’, him identifying with Frank as he represents his unconscious. Mirrors are symbolised throughout, acting as a barrier between Donnie and Frank, with Donnie trying to interact with him by touching the barrier. The other stages, the ‘Symbolic’ and the ‘Real’, both represent the different timelines within the story world. The ‘Symbolic’ is the timeline the film begins and ends in. This stage occurs when the subject ‘submits to the mechanism of subjectivation under the Name of the Father’ (Radley, 2012), following the rules and restraints enforced by authority and society. Donnie’s community is one of strict authority and religion, and from the beginning of the film, we see that Donnie is reluctant to accept these ideas enforced upon him. The ‘Real’ stage is the timeline in which the majority of the film takes place. This tangent universe only exists for a period of time, beginning when the aeroplane engine crashes into Donnie’s room. The ‘Real’ is seen as an unrepresentable realm, however Donnie is able to exist there due to his neurosis. From this timeline, Donnie is able to act against the negative forces of the symbolic without repercussions (Radley, 2012). For example, Donnie argues with Jim Cunningham, calling him the ‘antichrist’ with no punishments, whilst his English teacher is fired for teaching a book deemed corruptive (she is not acting within the Real). Though the film ends with Donnie being killed, by living in the Real, he was able to expose Jim Cunningham, save Gretchen and, ultimately, the universe.
Having established that psychoanalytic theory is greatly involved in Donnie Darko, this essay will next consider how far postmodern theory can be applied to the film. Donnie Darko can be classed as a postmodern film, as it implements many postmodern narrative and stylistic techniques. One of these is its rejection of metanarratives. Metanarratives are large, traditional concepts which are enforced on society and shape people’s beliefs. Within the film, Donnie’s town is one which is greatly influenced by law and religion - it ‘represses freedom through its institutions of work, school and family’ (Perkins, 2012 p.141) with the gym teacher Mrs Farmer being a devout follower of these ideologies. These concepts and characters who enforce them are portrayed negatively, and Donnie rebels against them for the good of his community. For example, when life coach Jim Cunningham talks to the students about his reductionist beliefs on life, Donnie argues against him and these concepts which are shaped by metanarratives. Later, when Jim’s house is burnt down, it is revealed he has a collection of child pornography, which sheds a negative light upon him and his religious beliefs. Furthermore, Donnie actively looks to science and time travel for answers about life, rather than religion which is enforced upon him by his school and therapist. This rebellion against traditional beliefs shows the films postmodern rejection of metanarratives.
Another postmodern trait included in Donnie Darko is the use of a non-linear narrative. Traditionally, films follow a chronological, linear narrative to present a story, however non-linear or fragmented narratives encourage the audience to be active in their viewing in order to understand the story fully. This is reflected in Donnie Darko through its theme of time travel. The film begins on the 2nd October 1988, and then the story is told over 28 days as it counts down to ‘the end of the world’. At the beginning of the film, an aeroplane engine falls into Donnie’s room, which triggers the series of events that occur throughout. Nearing the end of the film this event reoccurs, however this time Donnie is killed and the countdown resets to the 2nd October 1988. When this happens, the audience must relate all the events that have occurred to the outcome in order to fully understand the film. Initially, the narrative seems linear, however this unexpected ending forces the audience to reconsider their understanding of the film. (Powell, 2012 p.58).
Furthermore, Jean Baudrillard’s postmodern concept of simulations and simulacra is applicable to Donnie Darko. Baudrillard suggests that, whilst simulations are an artificial representation of reality, the simulacrum is a whole new reality of something which has never previously existed; a ‘parallel universe’ as such (Eig, 2003 p.10). This concept can be explained through the use of narrative within Donnie Darko. Initially, the town in the film is presented as a typical American suburb. However, we quickly begin to question reality when surreal occurrences such as wormholes and vortexes begin to happen. Whilst this could suggest a dream state, it may also indicate that the world is a simulation. By the end of the film however, the narrative is seen to reset itself, returning to the date at which the film began. This implies that all the events that unfolded did not actually take place, suggesting that the world and its story existed within a simulacrum.
Postmodern ideas of characterisation, such as multiple or fractured identities, are utilised in Donnie Darko. This concept is most clearly applied to Donnie himself, linking back to the psychoanalytic theory of the ego, superego and id. Donnie can be seen as having multiple identities, because of the inclusion of his ‘imaginary friend’, Frank. When a character has multiple, fragmented identities, they can often feel lost or lack in self-confidence, however they can also find hope for other issues they face (Kayhan, 2014 p.73-4). This is apparent in Donnie, as he struggles with his mental health, is rebellious at school and is frequently harassed by the school bullies. He rejects help from his therapist and does not take his medication, suggesting a lack of hope and motivation to improve his mental health or school grades. Frank, however, encourages Donnie to be more rebellious and gives his life a purpose - to expose the corruption within his community and save the lives of his loved ones. He gives him the confidence to talk back to authoritarian figures and find answers in different places such as science and philosophy.
Additionally, the film blurs notions of good and bad. Donnie can be seen as an anti-hero - he argues with authority figures and commits crimes, whilst protecting characters such as Gretchen and Cherita from the school bullies. We the audience struggle to sympathise with Donnie, especially at the beginning of the film. He is portrayed as an angsty teenager, arguing with his family and calling his mother a ‘bitch’ (Eig, 2003 p.8). However, as the film goes on, we begin to justify Donnie’s rebellious actions. Characters of authority such as Mrs Farmer and the headmaster, people who are usually seen as enforcers of good, are portrayed as mean and dominating, inflicting their strict views upon the students. Likewise, Jim Cunningham, the life coach hired to give the students a motivational speech, is depicted as ironic and embarrassing, especially as Donnie humiliates him by arguing against his beliefs. Though referring to him as the ‘antichrist’ may come across as unnecessarily offensive, when it is later revealed that Jim is a paedophile, Donnie’s words are justified. The portrayal of particular characters and the events which occur throughout the story portray religion and authority negatively, going against all the traditional beliefs of what is good and what is evil.
Style is also an important aspect of postmodern film, and Donnie Darko incorporates many different features. Set in 1980s America, the film features an abundance of intertextual references, making it a ‘pastiche’ of the past. Postmodern theorist Frederic Jameson believes that nostalgia films recreate the past through the pop culture and stereotypes of the time (Constable, 2015 p.71), which is true to Donnie Darko. While the high school setting is familiar to the period, the use of 80s electronic pop music in the soundtrack is what successfully transports the audience to the particular time, and places us in the mind of the teenage characters (Powell, H. 2012 p.57). The characters themselves also frequently discuss pop culture references of the 80s, mentioning films such as Back to the Future (Robert Zemeckis, 1985), Evil Dead (Sam Raimi, 1981) and Halloween (John Carpenter, 1978) - Donnie and his friends even have a lengthy, crude discussion about the Smurfs. One other important intertextual reference is Graham Greene’s book The Destructors (1954), which is taught in Donnie’s English class. In the book, the characters burn a house down, which Donnie also goes on to do, showing that the book was not only influential to Donnie within the film, but also director Richard Kelly when writing the screenplay. Another possible reference is to Alice In Wonderland, with the idea of Frank as the white rabbit, leading Donnie down a rabbit hole.
Additionally, Donnie Darko features aspects of hybridity in terms of themes and genre. Postmodern texts often mix and merge characteristics of different genres together in order to change the audience’s reading of the film (Kayhan, 2014 p.42). The film is a mix of thriller, horror and sci-fi, combining traditional horror tropes such as dark cellars and heavy shadows with science fiction themes of time travel and use of special effects. This mix of different genre tropes encourages the audience to be active in their viewing, presenting them with unexpected and non-traditional themes and visuals which change their overall interpretation of the film.
In conclusion, Donnie Darko is a film which can be read from a number of different perspectives. Analysing a film which involves such complex themes and ideas by using different theories encourages a deeper understanding of the narrative and its meanings, allowing us to appreciate the filmmakers' choices, both in narrative and creative design.
Bibliography
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Filmography
Back to the Future (1985) [film] Directed by Robert Zemeckis. US: Amblin Entertainment, Universal Pictures
Donnie Darko (2001) [film] Directed by Richard Kelly. US: Pandora Cinema, Flower Films, Adam Fields Productions, Gaylord Films.
Evil Dead (1981) [film] Directed by Sam Raimi. US: Renaissance Pictures
Halloween (1978) [film] Directed by John Carpenter. US: Compass International Pictures, Falcon International Productions
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